Neurophysiological - Brain Function Tests

We utilize an advanced form of neurophysiological (EEG/ERP) measurements that represent direct measurements of the brains cellular activity. The measure is in the form of electrical field potentials that are generated from large populations of neurons that alter their activity in response to intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli and associated neighbouring and subcortical inputs. Abnormality or damage to immediate structure or afferent input resulting in deviant neural activity is shown to result in abnormalities in the associated EEG (Niedermeyer & Lopes da Silva, 1999; Rowe et al., 2004a; Rowe & Hermens, 2006).

At present, there is no method of assessing information processing after head trauma that is the equal of ERPs (Duncan et al., 2005). ERPs assess functional brain activity, and therefore, can reveal subtle changes in information processing resulting from diffuse brain abnormalities (Duncan et al., 2005; Gaetz & Bernstein, 2001; Rowe, 2005). ERPs can offer more precision than behavioural measures for understanding the extent and timing of information processing difficulties due to brain injury (Clark et al., 1992).

The technique is different from the traditional and subjective neurological examination of EEG. The BRC method is completely objective by comparing an individual's results to a large normative database. The method examines functional brain topography by utilizing spatial measures of baseline cortical activity and information processing activity, rather than simply subjective identification of focal abnormalities in EEG time series.

The BRC EEG (neurophysiological/psychophysiological) acquisition system used by the Brain Profiling Group is designed to measure baseline and event related (ERP, temporal) electrical activity in the brain known as the electroencephalogram (EEG) using both passive and active paradigms. The EEGs are acquired using the International 10-20 system of scalp sites, the standard for clinical EEG, providing 27 points of cortical measurement (Jasper, 1958). Further quantitative analysis is used to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the brain function measures. This includes measures of EEG coherence, phase, qEEG, asymmetry, gamma synchrony, ERP latency and amplitude.

The acquisition technique, EEG measures, and associated paradigms and analyses are used extensively in the scientific literature and clinical settings, and research findings support their application (Araki et al., 2005; Begic et al., 2001; Gaetz & Bernstein, 2001; Greenberg & Ducker, 1982; Niedermeyer & Lopes da Silva, 1999; Polo et al., 2002; Reinvang, 1999; Rowe et al., 2004a; Rowe & Hermens, 2006; Rowe et al., 2004c; 2004b; Thatcher et al., 2001b; 2001a; 2003).

The previous limitation of the psychophysiological/neurophysiological techniques has been a lack of access to a large standardized normative database. This limitation has been overcome with the Brain Resource International Database (BRID) with over 2700 healthy controls, predominantly Australian. BRID has been published and peer reviewed in scientific journals and fulfils international standards and criteria (Alexander et al., 2006; APA, 1987; Brickman et al., 2005; Clark et al., 2004; 2006; Cooper et al., 2005; Gordon, 2003; Gordon et al., 2003; 2005; Grieve et al., 2006; Gunstad et al., 2006b; 2006a; 2006c; Hermens et al., 2004; 2005a; 2005c; 2005b; 2006; Keage et al., 2006; Kemp et al., 2005b; 2005a; Liddell et al., 2004; McFarlane et al., 2005; Paul et al., 2005a; 2006; 2005b; Rowe et al., 2006; Rowe & Hermens, 2006; Rowe, 2005; Veltmeyer et al., 2005; 2006; Whitford et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2004a; 2004b; 2005; Wong et al., 2006). See below for further details.

References

Alexander, DM, Arns, MW, Paul, RH, Rowe, DL, Cooper, N, Esser, AH, Fallahpour, K, Stephan, BC, Heesen, E, Breteler, R, Williams, LM, and Gordon, E (2006). EEG markers for cognitive decline in elderly subjects with subjective memory complaints. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 5 (1), 49-74.

APA (1987). Guidelines for computer based tests and interpretations. American Psychological Association.

Araki, T, Kasai, K, Yamasue, H, Kato, N, Kudo, N, Ohtani, T, Nakagome, K, Kirihara, K, Yamada, H, Abe, O, and Iwanami, A (2005). Association between lower P300 amplitude and smaller anterior cingulate cortex volume in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: a study of victims of Tokyo subway sarin attack. NeuroImage , 25 (1), 43-50.

Begic, D, Hotujac, L, and Jokic-Begic, N (2001). Electroencephalographic comparison of veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder and healthy subjects. International Journal of Psychophysiology , 40 (2), 167-172.

Brickman, AM, Paul, RH, Cohen, RA, Williams, LM, MacGregor, KL, Jefferson, AL, Tate, DF, Gunstad, J, and Gordon, E (2005). Category and letter verbal fluency across the adult lifespan: relationship to EEG theta power. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 20 (5), 561-573.

Clark, CR, O'Hanlon, AP, Wright, MJ, and Geffen, GM (1992). Event-related potential measurement of deficits in information processing following moderate to severe closed head injury. Brain Injury , 6 (6), 509-520.

Clark, CR, Paul, RH, Williams, LM, Arns, M, Fallahpour, K, Handmer, C, and Gordon, E (2006). Standardized assessment of cognitive functioning during development and aging using an automated touchscreen battery. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 21 (5), 449-467.

Clark, CR, Veltmeyer, MD, Hamilton, RJ, Simms, E, Paul, R, Hermens, D, and Gordon, E (2004). Spontaneous alpha peak frequency predicts working memory performance across the age span. International Journal of Psychophysiology , 53 (1), 1-9.

Cooper, NJ, Keage, H, Hermens, D, Williams, LM, Debrota, D, Clark, CR, and Gordon, E (2005). The dose-dependent effect of methylphenidate on performance, cognition and psychophysiology. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 123-144.

Duncan, CC, Kosmidis, MH, and Mirsky, AF (2005). Closed head injury-related information processing deficits: An event-related potential analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology , 58 (2-3), 133-157.

Gaetz, M and Bernstein, DM (2001). The current status of electrophysiologic procedures for the assessment of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation , 16 (4), 386-405.

Gordon, E (2003). Integrative neuroscience. Neuropsychopharmacology , 28 ( Suppl-8.

Gordon, E, Cooper, N, Rennie, C, Hermens, D, and Williams, LM (2003). Integrative neuroscience: the role of a standardised database. Australasian Psychiatry , 11 (2), 156-163.

Gordon, E, Cooper, N, Rennie, C, Hermens, D, and Williams, LM (2005). Integrative neuroscience: the role of a standardized database. Clinical EEG & Neuroscience: Official Journal of the EEG & Clinical Neuroscience Society (ENCS) , 36 (2), 64-75.

Greenberg, RP and Ducker, TB (1982). Evoked potentials in the clinical neurosciences. Journal of Neurosurgery , 56 (1), 1-18.

Grieve, S, Williams, L, Paul, RH, Clark, CR, and Gordon, E (2006). Cognitive aging, executive function and fractional anisotropy: A Diffusion Tensor MRI study. American Journal of Neuroradiology , in press (.

Gunstad, J, Paul, RH, Cohen, RA, Tate, DF, and Gordon, E (2006a). Obesity is associated with memory deficits in young and middle-aged adults. Eating & Weight Disorders: EWD , 11 (1), e15-e19.

Gunstad, J, Spitznagel, MB, Luyster, FS, Cohen, RA, and Paul, RH (2006b). Handedness and Cognition Across the Healthy Lifespan. International Journal of Neuroscience , in press (.

Gunstad, J, Paul, RH, Brickman, AM, Cohen, RA, Arns, M, Rowe, DL, Lawrence, JJ, and Gordon, E (2006c). Patterns of Cognitive Performance in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Cluster Analytic Examination. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology , 19 (2), 59-64.

Hermens, DF, Cooper, NJ, Kohn, M, Clarke, S, and Gordon, E (2005a). Predicting stimulant medication response in ADHD: evidence from an integrated profile of neuropsychological, psychophysiological and clinical factors. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 107-121.

Hermens, DF, Kohn, MR, Clarke, SD, Gordon, E, and Williams, LM (2005b). Sex differences in adolescent ADHD: findings from concurrent EEG and EDA. Clinical Neurophysiology , 116 (6), 1455-1463.

Hermens, DF, Rowe, DL, Gordon, E, and Williams, LM (2006). Integrative neuroscience approach to predict ADHD stimulant response. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics , 6 (5), 753-763.

Hermens, DF, Soei, EX, Clarke, SD, Kohn, MR, Gordon, E, and Williams, LM (2005c). Resting EEG theta activity predicts cognitive performance in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatric Neurology , 32 (4), 248-256.

Hermens, DF, Williams, LM, Lazzaro, I, Whitmont, S, Melkonian, D, and Gordon, E (2004). Sex differences in adult ADHD: a double dissociation in brain activity and autonomic arousal. Biological Psychology , 66 (3), 221-233.

Jasper, HH (1958). The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology , 10 ( 371-375.

Keage, HA, Clark, CR, Hermens, DF, Kohn, MR, Clarke, S, Williams, LM, Crewther, D, Lamb, C, and Gordon, E (2006). Distractibility in AD/HD predominantly inattentive and combined subtypes: the P3a ERP component, heart rate and performance. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 5 (1), 139-158.

Kemp, AH, Cooper, NJ, Hermens, G, Gordon, E, Bryant, R, and Williams, LM (2005a). Toward an integrated profile of emotional intelligence: introducing a brief measure. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 41-61.

Kemp, AH, Stephan, BC, Hopkinson, P, Sumich, AL, Paul, RH, Clark, CR, Gordon, E, Bryant, RA, and Williams, LM (2005b). Toward an integrated profile of depression: evidence from the brain resource international database. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 95-106.

Liddell, BJ, Williams, LM, Rathjen, J, Shevrin, H, and Gordon, E (2004). A temporal dissociation of subliminal versus supraliminal fear perception: an event-related potential study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 16 (3), 479-486.

McFarlane, A, Clark, CR, Bryant, RA, Williams, LM, Niaura, R, Paul, RH, Hitsman, BL, Stroud, L, Alexander, DM, and Gordon, E (2005). The impact of early life stress on psychophysiological, personality and behavioral measures in 740 non-clinical subjects. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 27-40.

Niedermeyer, E and Lopes da Silva, FH (1999). Electroencephalography: basic principles, clinical applications and related fields. 4th. Williams & Watkins, Baltimore.

Paul, RH, Clark, CR, Lawrence, J, Goldberg, E, Williams, LM, Cooper, N, Cohen, RA, Brickman, AM, and Gordon, E (2005a). Age-dependent change in executive function and gamma 40 Hz phase synchrony. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 63-76.

Paul, RH, Gunstad, J, Cooper, N, Williams, LM, Clark, CR, Cohen, RA, Lawrence, JJ, and Gordon, E (2006). Cross cultural assessment of neuropsychological performance and electrical brain function measures. International Journal of Neuroscience , in press (.

Paul, RH, Lawrence, J, Williams, LM, Clark, CR, Cooper, N, and Gordon, E (2005b). Preliminary validity of 'IntegNeuro': A new computerized battery of neurocognitive tests. International Journal of Neuroscience , 115 (11), 1549-1567.

Polo, MD, Newton, P, Rogers, D, Escera, C, and Butler, S (2002). ERPs and behavioural indices of long-term preattentive and attentive deficits after closed head injury. Neuropsychologia , 40 (13), 2350-2359.

Reinvang, I (1999). Cognitive event-related potentials in neuropsychological assessment. Neuropsychology Review , 9 (4), 231-248.

Rowe, DL and Hermens, DF (2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: neurophysiology, information processing, arousal and drug development. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics , 6 (11), 1721-1734.

Rowe, DL, Hermens, DF, Kohn, M, Clarke, S, and Gordon, E (2006). Neuropsychological subtypes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Australian Journal of Psychology , 58 (suppl), 230-231.

Rowe, DL, Robinson, PA, Harris, AW, Felmingham, KL, Lazzaro, I, and Gordon, E (2004a). Neurophysiologically-based mean-field modelling of tonic cortical activity in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), chronic schizophrenia, First Episode Schizophrenia (FESz) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 3 (4), 453-487.

Rowe, DL (2005). A framework for investigating thalamocortical activity in multistage information processing. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 5-26.

Rowe, DL, Robinson, PA, and Gordon, E (2004b). Stimulant Drug Action in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Inference of Neurophysiological Mechanisms via Quantitative Modelling. Clinical Neurophysiology , 116 ( 324-335.

Rowe, DL, Robinson, PA, and Rennie, CJ (2004c). Estimation of Neurophysiological Parameters from the Waking EEG using a Biophysical Model of Brain Dynamics. Journal of Theoretical Biology , 231 (3), 413-433.

Thatcher, RW, Biver, C, Gomez, JF, North, D, Curtin, R, Walker, RA, and Salazar, A (2001a). Estimation of the EEG power spectrum using MRI T2 relaxation time in traumatic brain injury. Clinical Neurophysiology , 112 (9), 1729-1745.

Thatcher, RW, Biver, CJ, and North, DM (2003). Quantitative EEG and the Frye and Daubert standards of admissibility. Clinical Electroencephalography , 34 (2), 39-53.

Thatcher, RW, North, DM, Curtin, RT, Walker, RA, Biver, CJ, Gomez, JF, and Salazar, AM (2001b). An EEG severity index of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences , 13 (1), 77-87.

Veltmeyer, MD, Clark, CR, McFarlane, AC, Felmingham, KL, Bryant, RA, and Gordon, E (2005). Integrative assessment of brain and cognitive function in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 4 (1), 145-159.

Veltmeyer, MD, McFarlane, AC, Bryant, RA, Mayo, T, Gordon, E, and Clark, CR (2006). Integrative assessment of brain function in PTSD: brain stability and working memory. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience , 5 (1), 123-138.

Whitford, T, Rennie, CJ, Grieve, S, Clark, CR, Gordon, E, and Williams, LM (2006). Brain maturation in adolescence: Concurrent changes in neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. Human Brain Mapping , in press (.

Williams, LM, Das, P, Harris, AW, Liddell, BB, Brammer, MJ, Olivieri, G, Skerrett, D, Phillips, ML, David, AS, Peduto, A, and Gordon, E (2004a). Dysregulation of arousal and amygdala-prefrontal systems in paranoid schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry , 161 (3), 480-489.

Williams, LM, Liddell, BJ, Rathjen, J, Brown, KJ, Gray, J, Phillips, M, Young, A, and Gordon, E (2004b). Mapping the time course of nonconscious and conscious perception of fear: an integration of central and peripheral measures. Human Brain Mapping , 21 (2), 64-74.

Williams, LM, Simms, E, Clark, CR, Paul, RH, Rowe, DL, and Gordon, E (2005). The test-retest reliability of a standardized neurocognitive and neurophysiological test battery: 'NeuroMarker'. International Journal of Neuroscience , 115 (12), 1605-1630.